History Of Papermaking Essays - Papermaking, Pulp, Paper Machine

History of Papermaking HISTORY OF PAPERMAKING Papermaking goes as far back as 105 A.D. when Ts'ai Lun, an official at the Imperial Court of China, made a sheet of paper using mulberry and other fibres along with fish nets, rags and hemp waste. The first paper was made in 793 A.D. in Baghdad during Harun-ar-Raschid's rule, with the golden age of Islamic culture that brought papermaking to Europe. By the 14th century paper mills existed all over Europe, particularly in Spain, Italy, France and Germany. During the 1450's paper printing(by machines) was introduced and the demand for paper increased all over the world. Papermaking remained unchanged till the 18th century, with linen and cotton rags used for raw materials. This soon presented a shortage, since no more rags and linen were available and it is was apparent that a process for utilizing a more abundant material was required. IMPROVEMENTS IN MATERIALS AND PROCESSES In 1800 a book was published which stated practical methods for manufacturing paper from wood and vegetable pulps. Soon many publishing processes were developed and the paper industry no longer had to depend on rags and linen and this made mass production possible. There were two main kinds of pulping processes used in the 18th century and they were, mechanical or groundwood pulping and chemical pulping. Mechanical pulping contains certain wood components and therefore, it is not suitable for paper in which high whiteness and permanence are required. Mechanical pulp was first made in Germany in the 1840's, but was not used much until 1870. Chemical wood pulp is used when high whiteness, strength and permanence are required. VAT SIZING: A sheet of paper composed of cellulosic fibres is water absorbent. Thus, aqueous liquids will penetrate it and spread in it. Impregnation of the paper with various substances that require this wetting and penetration is called vat sizing. During the 18th century paper sheets were impregnated with animal glue which was an expensive and tedious process. In 1807 Moritz Friedrich Illig of Germany discovered paper that could be sized in vats with rosin and alum, but his methods were not commonly used till 1840. INTRODUCTION OF MACHINERY Before the paper machine was invented, paper was made by hand one at a time. In 1798, a Frenchman named Nicolas-Louis Robert invented a moving screen belt that would receive a continuous flow of stock and give an unbroken sheet of paper to a pair of squeeze rolls. The invention was not really used much, but two Englishmen, the Fourdrinier brothers, improved on Robert's idea and built a better version in 1807. From these crude beginnings modern papermaking machines were developed. Although modern creations and engineering have formed and ancient craft into a technical industry, the basic procedures remain the same. These procedures are as follows: (A) A suspension of cellulosic fibres is prepared by beating it in water so that the fibres are completely separated and saturated with the water. (B) The paper stock is filtered on a woven screen to form a matted sheet of fibre. (C) The wet sheet is then pressed and compacted to squeeze out the water. (D) The remaining water is removed by evaporation. (E) The dry paper sheet is then compressed and impregnated if needed.

Some Thoughts on what is to be Done

Some Thoughts on what is to be Done Many books have been written within the concept of development. It is evident from a historical perspective that there have been different perspectives as far as the term ‘development’ is concerned. Gilbert Rist, one of the greatest authors of his time has written very a comprehensive book on development. In his book, ‘The History of Development: From Western Origins to Global Faith’, Rist attempts to vividly make evident that which has not been seen. Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Some Thoughts on what is to be Done specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More He offers a fierce critique of western models of development, especially those recommended to ‘developing countries’. While he provides a bare account of development, he is not to be considered pessimistic but instead aims to make people aware of the facts of development motives, especially by the western countries. This essay seek s to offer a summary of Chapter 13 of Rist’s book as well as to provide a conclusion from a personal perspective. A number of authors have recommended this book to an overwhelmingly large number of people who would like to understand the forces that have shaped North-South relations for over half a century now. The book has a total of 14 chapters, each with identifiably unique yet related content. In chapter 13, Rist attempts to provide an overview of the preceding chapters with an aim of highlighting important themes brought out in the book. The chapter is entitled, ‘Some Thoughts on what is to be Done’ and widely focuses on ‘development’ as a misrepresented concept. First of all, it points out the Western countries’ misconception of ‘development’ since they provide a misleading definition. From Western understanding, growth or progress should be an ever continuing process (238). The same idea is still perpetrated even to the pr esent and has resulted in a greater division between nations. The West’s aim is to justify its ostensible superiority in all conceivable human achievements. These include; the military activities, technological and economic domination. In order to ensure the penetration of their idea, they constructed and disseminated the concept of ‘underdevelopment’. This hegemony of ‘development’ created a ‘false opposite’ so that countries perceived to be underdeveloped would struggle to catch up (238). However, in order to sound ‘optimistic’, the West introduced the term ‘developing countries’ that only served to reinforce the illusion of attaining material prosperity for all humanity. At the moment, according to Rist, virtually all leaders of states have embraced the ‘development’ paradigm. Everyone is talking about ‘development’ yet in most instances, they all doubt this possibility, individuall y. However, Rist notes that since every belief gets used to periodic uncertainties, they do not alter the mutual consensus attained during socially binding rites (239). Advertising Looking for essay on literature languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This tendency takes captive of individual doubts on the precept that everyone else believes what has been collectively agreed upon. As a way of getting nations to demonstrate commitment to the belief, there are several forms of obligatory practices (239). The use of conventional ways of defining and solving problems are used. According to Rist, ‘development’ serves to bring forth inequality and exclusion apart from the need to meet the needs of consumers. He also observes that the gap between North and South is always widening. Similarly, the gap between the rich and the poor in each of the nations is also widening. The continued feeding of the well-of f group only serves to fuel the hopes of attaining the same status by the poor. This dream bars the realization that they are actually being exploited (239). The developing nations have been blinded by the numerous forms of ‘development assistance’ from the well-off nations, albeit the fact the aid barely reaches the target group but instead land on destitute authorities. The essay has offered a summary of Rist’s work from chapter 13 of his book. It has brought out his ideas on how ‘development’ as a concept has been misrepresented by the West at the expense of other countries. We can conclude that Rist’s arguments about development, to a significant extent, have the ability to enlighten people of all categories. It offers a new perspective of looking beneath the surface of every claim and engagements among nations as well as within independent countries. Work Cited Rist, G. The history of development: from western origins to global faith (2n d ed.). Zed Books, 238- 239

How do the three perspectives (Modern, Symbolic-Interpretive, and Essay

How do the three perspectives (Modern, Symbolic-Interpretive, and Post-modern) contribute to different ways to think about organisations - Essay Example Modern perspectives on organizational theory began through the 1950’s, 1960’s to the end of 1970’s. However it’s the latter period and writers associated with that period that had a real impact on the subsequent developments of the modern perspectives on organizational theory. Emery and Trist (1960) and Woodward (1965) for example stand out in their efforts to develop a theoretical and conceptual framework for analysis. This period was followed by what’s known as the Symbolic-interpretive perspective in organizational theory. Starting from the pioneering work of Schutz (1932) it culminated in the path-breaking work of Clifford and Marcus (1986) on evolutionary anthropology. However, many other writers contributed to this evolutionary process though. Finally the Post-modern perspective on organizational theory began to be developed by such writers as Bell (1973) and the tradition continued to evolve with various writers and researchers contributing to its many faceted perspectives till Baudrillard (1988) wrote his masterpiece on Post-modernism with articulate emphasis on the organization as a post-modern phenomenon that required a more analytical approach than was hitherto practiced. Modern perspective about the business organization is basically determined by objective reality, i.e. there is an objective external environment which exists beyond the reach of humans’ knowledge and therefore the organization exists as a separate entity form this objective external environment. However there is an element of positivism in human’s ability to learn the real nature of this external environment by developing concepts that enable them to progress by accumulating intelligence. When this is applied to the modern business organization and its environment it’s imperative in the first instance for it to operate in its environment with a set of rules or norms, standards and procedures. Its organizational behavior is determined

Nursing Gender Stereotype Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Nursing Gender Stereotype - Essay Example Nuns and lay women have been helping to care for the sick even before the time of Florence Nightingale. It is only during her time that the first nursing school was established. Nursing thus became a profession. Coupled with Nightingales belief and fact that society has dictated women to care for the injured soldiers has cemented the nursing profession as a profession for women. This designation of the profession as "only for women" has changed over time. The three pictures of groups of nurses presented, depicts nurses over a vast period of time, will attest to this. The first is a picture of six nurses taken during Florence Nightingales time. The women are dressed all in white long gowns with what appears to be a nursing cap on their heads. The cap is quite larger than the common white nursing caps worn by nursing students of today. They look very neat with their hair fastened away from the face and tucked underneath their caps. Their white gowns cover their bodies and arms provide protection from contamination and also prevent them from coming into skin contact with their patients. Their gowns are all starched up seeing that it does not follow the contour of the body also serves to prevent dirt from sticking to it. They do not wear jewelry as this might only get in the way as they move about their business. Their faces bearing a serious and yet small smile shows that they mean business. They are ready to do their task. Not one wears a big smile probably because during their time women were supposed to be meek and reserved. The head held high a nd eyes looking straight at the camera shows confidence. They epitomize Florence Nightingales' Nurse as clean, neat, formal, confident, and competent. The picture also shows the bond that these women have. The way they are seated, with the women on the floor having their arm and elbow on the lap of the woman seated behind them and with the woman at the back sitting forward and placing her hands at the back of each nurse seated at her front shows the relation of togetherness at work and in service. The picture also shows that age is not an impediment to service. The picture shows women of varying ages. This disparity in ages is further emphasized for the youngest nurse, the one wearing a different headdress was made to sit beside the oldest nurse in the picture (2nd row extreme right of the picture). The second picture are the nurses of the late ninety's. It shows three women nurses and three doctors. The nurses are in scrub suits while two doctors are in doctors gowns and another has a stethoscope hanging around his neck. The ratio of doctors against nurses in the picture can be interpreted to show equal importance. Both are equally important in the field of caring and nursing a sick patient to good health. The nurses in the picture are easily identifiable by the scrub suits they are wearing. They are no longer encumbered with the lengthy, up to the neck and long sleeved gowns. They can move with ease and are more comfortable. Although no longer sporting the traditional white long gowns, they are as clean as ever with the help of

Movie review on Kingdom of Heaven (2005) Essay Example for Free

Movie review on Kingdom of Heaven (2005) Essay Though the movie can be considered to be masterful and superior as far as the visual and technical factors are concerned, the Kingdom of Heaven (2005) becomes a less outstanding epic film since there is a great alteration on the focus of the central theme of the story. Screenwriter William Monahan writes well about the story but Ridley Scott seems to become more interested in searching and probing the evils of religion rather than making a medieval epic. The fighting scenes are even mechanical. Leading actor Orlando Bloom, furthermore, though he has fine screen presence, inadequately assumes his role since his performance was monochromatic and subdued compared to the other leading actors of the different epic films. Aside from his not totally outstanding performance, Bloom seems to sound like the character in the Lord of the Rings. It seems that the dialogues of the main character are just stolen or adopted from the other movie (The Internet Movie Database 2010). Nevertheless, the movie is not a total frustration to the audience since the movie has undeniably almost perfect visual and technical factors. The portrayal of the medieval France and the city of Jerusalem was considered to be a brilliant technical accomplishment. Other characters such as Balian’s father (Liam Neeson), Tiberias (Jeremy Irons) and the king (Edward Norton) were successful in assuming their roles. They indeed portrayed an authentic characterization for a medieval knight. In total, the movie is worth watching if and only if it entails originality, focus on the theme, and some polishing on the characterizations of the characters. References The Internet Movie Database (2010). Kingdom of Heaven. Retrieved August 1, 2010, from http://www. imdb. com/title/tt0320661/plotsummary.

roll of thunder :: essays research papers

If you go back to the Old House, it's in ruins and the Clock Tower is gone. But remember this place to come back later when you have some items that you don't have at the moment... At Father's House, the baby bird is spreading its wings. Unfortunately, it doesn't say anything with a Relay. One of the books you may be able to read now is here too: Level 15 (Shield Pack). Don't worry if you're not up this high yet; if you keep fighting monsters you'll either get there, or you'll spend so much on curing damage that you'll eventually figure out you need to kill easier monsters for a while to get levels so you can add points to the Robots. It helps too if you raise the levels of the Robots' weapons, or build and give them better Boots or Shields. If you did manage to get to Level 19 already, read the book for Weather and follow the instructions in the Scraps section to get ScrapB. You can do this later though, with no ill effects. OK, let's go on a trip to South Isle! Go to the Harbor area, which is monster-free. Talk to the man in the grass skirt, then walk onto the boat. Wait while it toils across the seas of Quintenix. You'll arrive at the Pier area on South Isle. When you leave the area, the path to the Village area is revealed. Mint and more natives are in there, and the screen shakes along with a sound effect like a helicopter (on my emulator, at least); that's the Volcano. There's a Tool Shop in the Village, but it has the same stock as the one in Rococo and the prices are 50% higher. Find the Shaman's house in the northwest, and then enter the Elder's house in the northeast. Now visit the Shaman's house, and note that blocked door in the first room for later. Or you can skip all the background information, including talking to the Mayor, and just talk to the native in the Inn and then moving into the left bed. There will be a dream sequence with a gold robot at the Volcano. Talk to the native standing near the exit, and the path to the Volcano area will be revealed when you leave. The Volcano area is monster-free (for now). Explore it and get the Celtis 1 and $300 treasures before you talk to the native blocking the stairs to the hole.

History Part B

Controlled assessment part b i. Representation 1 is from the The English Police Force; A Political and Social History written by Clive Emsley, published in 1991. It suggests that the police were ineffective at stopping/preventing major crimes such as robbery. However, they were effective at stopping minor crimes in the local community. Representation 2 is A Plaint by a P’liceman, a poem published in Punch magazine in the late nineteenth century.It also suggests that the police were ineffective at stopping/preventing major crimes and that limited the effectiveness of the Police. However, the representation also suggests that the police were effective at stopping/preventing minor crimes but that was seen as ‘stop[ing] little boys from playing ball’. Representations 1 and 2 have a number of similarities. First of all Rep 1 and 2 portray the negative attitude towards the Police. This is shown by ‘belief among many of the working class that there was a law for th e rich and another, harsher law, for the poor.In some areas, they allowed fights and other law breaking activities, which they would’ve acted against elsewhere’. From representation 2, i can spot that it agrees with representation 1 as it says ‘’The street’s re quite unsafe’ they say, You’re robbed and mobbed in broad noonday But little boys they mustn’t play’’. Representation 1 also gives the impression that the Police were capable of preventing petty crimes but they differ in tone. This is shown by ‘what the police were especially good at, was apprehending those who committed petty street offences . Representation 2 is similar and i know this from ‘Stop little boys from playing ball, or move away an apple stall’. Finally, Representation 1 suggests that the police themselves were not to blame for their ineffectiveness. I know this from ‘The police never had sufficient manpower to suppress disorder entirely’. Representation 2 is similar as it suggests ‘ Well, if from growls you can refrain, it ain’t of us you should complain You’ve got thank SIR RICHARD MAYNE’. Representation 1 and 2 have a number of differences.First of all Rep 1 gives a negative view towards the police but it differs in attitude compared to Representation 2. This shown by the fact that Representation 1 gives negative view towards the police but it gives some positives of the Police, therefore giving balanced argument. However, Representation 2 gives a generally one sided view of the police, which is negative. The representation doesn’t seem to take into account the other side of Policing, creating a one-sided and biased view. Both representations differ in tone.I know this as Representation 1 gives an academic style, due to the language used. You must also take into account that it’s from a textbook. Meaning that it will have to be fair when creating a judgement of the Police. Representation 1 tends to use words such as ‘however’ and ‘although’. Representation 2 is wholly one sided being exaggerated. Emotional language is used, in order to build a negative view image of the police. I know this from the exaggeration and comparison of petty street offenders to boys ‘They bids me chivvy little boys’In conclusion the two representations are mostly different as the first representation gives a balanced view making a conclusion at the end after evaluating all points. Whereas, the 2nd Representation gives a negative focus and tone towards the Police without even considering the usefulness of the police. The main reason for this is Representation 1 concludes that ‘Although they[working class] may not have liked the Police, they realised that the police force were there to protect and serve the community’.By concluding in this manner, it shows that there is an understanding as to why the police are judged in a certain way but gave a reason as to why the Police were existent and that was to put order in society. Whereas, Representation 2 portrays the Police as useless when considering all the crimes that the Police should prevent. Representation 2 consider’s the Police as people who only put a plaster on the wound rather than healing the wound, in a sense. The downside for Representation 2 is that it is completely one sided which allows a lot of criticism to be made.The most important areas of difference is the tone and focus. I say this because, there is a clear difference because of the tone and focus. Representation 1 is a formal and factual piece focusing on all aspects of policing, thus, allowing the reader to understand the Police properly and leave the reader to make his own judgement. However, when it comes to Representation 2, the piece is informal and focuses only on the negative aspects of the Police. The piece doesn’t allow the reader to ma ke his own judgement fairly.